Perhaps we are living in a multiverse (a term coined by William James), a vast plurality (perhaps infinite) of parallel universes with different physical constants, all of them composing one reality. None of this is particularly good for the world, but it has been good for Cass Seltzer. Only God can inhabit the point of view of eternity. There is much suffering in this world. (There are many answers to this question; mention as many as you can. If God never existed, neither did this relationship. 3. What it takes for this thing to exist could only be this thing itself. For any part presupposes Can an infinite task ever be done or completed? These are not the Thus our material universe necessarily requires, as the sufficient reason for its actual existence as an operating whole, a Transcendent Creative Mind. Granted that the problem boggles the mind, but waving one's hands in the direction of God is no solution. FLAW 1:The psychological traits that go into human accomplishment, such as intelligence and perseverance, are heritable. In our world But if nonbeing is a real possibility for you, then you are the kind of being that cannot last forever. But, as we have seen, those secondary causes could not be without the First Cause, even though they can be known without knowing the First Cause. If the probability of God's existence (ascertained by other means) is infinitesimal, then even if the cost of not believing in him is high, the overall expectation may not make it worthwhile to choose the "believe" row (after all, we take many other risks in life with severe possible costs but low probabilities, such as boarding an airplane). The Argument from Mathematical Reality, 1. argument) we regard as fundamentally flawed; yet we include it because it is very famous But what is obvious when thought is said to be a certain bodily movement seems equally to follow from its being the effect of one. (Hume's is the most famous.). FLAW:There are certain computational procedures governed by what logicians call recursive rules. 3. If he tried long enough to grasp it, then he could get the fact of being Casshereto blank out of existence and then come dribbling weakly back in, like a fluorescent fixture flickering on and off toward death. 2. Therefore there must be something in addition to the material universe. 1. But we can very well maintain that each human life is preciousis worth living, is not expendablewithoutmaintaining that each human life has a purpose in the overall scheme of things. RONALD TACELLI, SJ. Certainly he came to believe in the miracle -- stories. First, because they could be caused by something in nature, and second, because the context in which they occur is not religious. In article 3, question 2, first part of his Summa Theologica, Thomas Aquinas developed his five arguments for Gods existence. Science is only in business because there are things we have not explained yet. We do not, for example, for the most part, recognize corresponding states of deprivation for the second, the artificial, desires, as we do for the first. be able to operate prior to and independent of the system. But of course it could be pointless in the sense meant by this argument: lacking a purpose in the grand scheme of things. Should I believe that the resurrected prophet Moroni dictated the Book of Mormon to Joseph Smith? Now since reason cannot decide for sure, and since the question is of such importance that we must decide somehow, then we must "wager" if we cannot prove. If the Darwinian theory has shown anything, it has shown, in a general way, how species may have descended from others through random mutation; and how survival of these species can be accounted for by natural selection -- by the fitness of some species to survive in their environment. Atheists, the researchers reported, seem to be playing the pariah role once assigned to Catholics, Jews, and Communists, seen as harboring alien and subversive values, or, more likely, as having no inner values at all, and therefore likely to be criminals, rapists and wild-eyed drug addicts. After all that has happened to Cass over the course of this past year, he's surprised at the degree of awed elation he feels at the letter bearing the insignia ofVeritas. That is, many people understand their experience that way; they are "united with" or "taken up into" a boundless and overwhelming Knowledge and Love, a Love that fills them with itself but infinitely exceeds their capacity to receive. are arguments one or more of whose premises depend on experiential.verification.Saint Thomas believes that there can be no a priori argument for. Existence is like a gift given from cause to effect. Published with permission.]. existing but only as c. necessarily existing. 5. COMMENT:The Cosmological Argument, like the Argument from the Big Bang, and The Argument from the Intelligibility of the Universe, are expressions of our cosmic befuddlement at the question: why is there something rather than nothing? The universe came to be ex nihilo (from 1). But he's an academic, his sense of success and failure ultimately determined by the academy's utilities (to use the language of Lucinda's science), and Harvard counts as the maximum utility. thunk! The nonbeliever therefore should have nothing to worry about falsifying the negative payoff in the lower-left-hand cell of the matrix. (There is no possible world in which, say, 2 plus 2 does not equal 4, or in which the square root of 2 can be expressed as the ratio of two whole numbers. Therefore the atheistic view of reality is not compatible with there being genuine moral obligation. The Argument from The Improbable Self. Do I have the right to demand absolute obedience from anyone, even myself? That To justify reason would be to try to give grounds for the belief: "We ought to accept the conclusions of sound arguments." Mystics go into a special state in which they seem to see aspects of reality that elude everyday experience. What is the difference between the cosmological and teleological argument? Poets have to come up with the vision and they have to turn it on so it sparks and catches hold.". Therefore God himself must be the cause of the idea we have of him. But those are just subjective values, and it is obscure to say that statements that are consistent with those values are objectively true in the same way that mathematical or scientific statements can be true. 5. Do most atheists believe in real moral obligation? FLAW 2:The struggle to put the ineffable contents of abnormal experiences into language inclines the struggler toward pre-existing religious language, which is the only language that most of us have been exposed to which overlaps with the unusual sensations of an altered state of consciousness. true in all possible worlds). It is not an argument which moves from your own personal experience to your own affirmation that God exists. It is human activities that have purposesor don't. Faith provides good rational grounds for beliefs (since it is, in the final analysis, necessary even for the belief in reason from 3). There are no results at this time. And we can refer such a person to the nearly universal testimony of human history in all its great literature. 3. (Water is wet, but that does not mean that every H2 0 molecule it is made of is also wet.) Prayers that a person can grow back a limb, or that a child can be resurrected from the dead, always go unanswered. FLAW 2:The Argument From the Big Bang has all the flaws of The Cosmological Argument it passes the buck from the mystery of the origin of the universe to the mystery of the origin of God, and it extends the notion of "cause" outside the domain of events covered by natural laws (also known as the universe) where it no longer makes sense. Many nonbelievers hold that belief in God is the result of childhood fears; that God is in fact a projection of our human fathers: someone "up there" who can protect us from natural forces we consider hostile. A good will might create molecules, but how could molecules create a good will? 5. Certain drugs can also induce feelings of transcendence, such as an enlargement of perception beyond the bounds of effability, a melting of the boundaries of the self, a joyful expansion out into an existence that seems to be all One, with all that Oneness pronouncing Yes upon us. Couldn't this book have been caused by an explosion in a print factory? If only everybody could be famous, we would all be effortlessly altruistic. Then at least we have some way of seeing how an eternal cause could give rise to a temporally limited effect. This comforter has pockets for the hands and feet and a softness that's the result of impregnation with aloe vera. There are numerous well-attested miracles. Read Pascal's version of it in the Pensees; what do you find there that is significant that is not included here? 5. It flies in the face of the experience that all of us -- believers and nonbelievers -- share in common. God is the only thing that is outside of the universe. And what gives impetus to that movement is not just the event by itself, but the many factors surrounding it which invite -- or seem to demand -- such interpretation. You may in fact have a fairly settled view that it cannot be argued about. If not, how and when did the idea of God get into our minds? 6. These states are necessary results of other bodily states. A one-in-a-million event is not improbable at all if there are a million opportunities for it to occur. These coincidences are such as to enhance our awed appreciation for the beauty of the natural world. Can you refute the modal and possible worlds versions of the ontological argument? Believers and nonbelievers can know that knowledge and friendship, for example, are things that we really ought to strive for, and that cruelty and deceit are objectively wrong. If these seven 4. God would want us to have a knowledge of the infinite, both for the cognitive pleasure it affords us and because it allows us to come to know him, who is himself infinite. It's in this spirit thatEdgepresents a brief excerpt from the first chapter, and the nonfiction appendix from36Arguments for the Existence of God: A Work of Fictionby Rebecca Newberger Goldstein (21,250 words). The changing thing begins with only the potential to change, but it needs to be acted on by other things outside if that potential is to be made actual. Picture Information. There would not exist what it takes for anything to exist. To make the best case for The Argument from Pragmatism, therefore, the first premise is here understood as claiming only that the pragmatic consequences of belief are a relevant source of evidence in ascertaining the truth, not that they can actually be equated with the truth. The argument is not a proof, but a very powerful clue or sign. A posteriori arguments B. Attitudes toward arguments for God's existence 1. Let's say we produce a sound argument for the conclusion that "we ought to accept the conclusions of sound arguments." strengthens Anselm's side of the argument. A gene for being kind to one's kin, even if it hurts the person doing the favor, can be favored by evolution, because that gene would be helping a copy of itself that is shared by the kin. No matter how many things there are in the series, each one needs something outside itself to actualize its potentiality for change. So what this argument boils down to is the observation that we live in a lawful universe. 6. Of course not -- not even in an infinite time. Both he and Jesse, his younger brother, had wanted the higher bunk, but, as usual, Jesse had wanted what he wanted so much more than Cass had wanted it, with a fury of need that was exhausting just to watch, that Cass had let it go. posterior to, God, and the movement terminates in God as cause, the argument is said to be a posteriori, that is, from what is posterior.' If, on the other hand, the point of departure is divine nature, seen as in some way accounting for, and so prior to, the divine existence, the argument is said to be a priori, that is, from what is prior.2 . We are really, truly, objectively obligated Either he had a good reason or he didn't. That realization is not itself an argument for God's existence; in fact, in the light of it you would probably say that there is no need for arguments. These epiphanies seem toannouncethemselvesto us, as if they came from an external guide: another example of the Projection Fallacy. . (If it were, all the problems about infinite duration would arise once again.) Grant the first premise. The first premise is claiming something more: namely, that we human beings really are obligated; that our duties arise from the way things really are, and not simply from our desires or subjective dispositions. C: So God exists. Frankly, that is incredible. There must be a transcendent realm in which perfect justice prevails (from 1 and 2). He had formulated The Argument from Sublimity (#34), trying to capture the line of reasoning lurking behind, for example, the recent testament of one evangelical scientist who had felt his doubts falling away from him when he was hiking in the mountains and came upon a frozen waterfall in fact a trinity of a frozen waterfall, with three parts to it. It is a type of argument based on experience of the world. It is only the Fallacy of Wishful Thinking, embodied in Premise 2, that could make us presume that what is psychologically intolerable cannot be the case. 6. Most agree, however, that the . A posteriori means "from the latter." Knowledge is described as a posteriori when it can only be obtained by experience or other empirical means. (Many think they are, and say they are -- until they suffer violence or injustice. The mind is a neural computer and the folks with the algorithms ruled. But we have already seen that change in any being requires an outside force to actualize it. are and it is. For every desire will spring from the same ultimate source -- purposeless, pitiless matter. This is Merseult in Camus's The Stranger. Now we grant that such mass delusion is conceivable, but what is the likely story? It does not mean merely that we can find people around who claim to have certain duties. For example, one class of philosophers asserts that the proofs for the existence of God present a fairly high probability, though not absolute certainty. Two types of arguments for God's existence 1. does not seem elusive or farfetched. An effective rational argument for God's existence can be an important first step in opening the mind to the possibility of faith -- in clearing some of the roadblocks and rubble that prevent people from taking the idea of divine revelation seriously. In many complex organs, the removal or modification of any part would destroy the functional whole. Would alternative theories of time change or invalidate any of the cosmological arguments? 6. Well-grounded beliefs may be the exception rather than the rule when it comes to psychologically fraught beliefs, which tend to bypass rational grounding and spring instead from unexamined emotions. A major problem with the argument, however, in addition to the flaws discussed below, is that it is not at all clear that it is God whose existence is being proved. Is the second premise true? Should I believe that Jesus is my personal savior? 3. Why might someone think that the whole question of this chapter, whether God's existence can be proved, is trivial, unimportant, distracting or wrongheaded? And, anyway, exactly what sort of chaos is this question asking us to imagine? The argument proposes that Gods existence is self-evident. Those same faculties, when they are honed through debate, reason, and knowledge, can allow us to step outside ourselves, learn about other people's point of view, and act in a way that we can justify as maximizing everyone's well-being. (Remember, there are only three ways of answering any argument. If so, how? If it really is a random event when I give the infirm man my seat in the subway, then in what sense is itmeto whom this good deed should be attributed? It's a revelation to learn what a nice bunch of upright mammals we're capable of being. Therefore the meaning of the event must also be religious to qualify as a miracle. God alone is a being who is not a person and who cares about each of us enough to show us the way. There are virtues forbearance, courage, compassion, and so on that can only develop in the presence of suffering. The truths that describe our physical world, no matter how fundamental, are empirical, requiring observational evidence. But we believe that there are many who want and need the kind of help these proofs offer more than they might at first be willing to admit. So the process of reaching it was not infinite. 7. In other words, there has to be an explanation for why it istheselaws of nature rather than some other, which is another way of asking for why it isthisworld rather than some other. more and more of them -- even an infinite number, if that were possible -- we are It is this sort of cramped and constricted horizon that the proofs presented in this chapter are trying to expand. A being not limited in these ways cannot "come" to be or "cease" to be. the two cases: if you win, you win everything, if you lose, you lose nothing.". Maybe some things justare("stuff happens"), including the fundamental laws of nature. Appendix: 36 ARGUMENTS FOR THE EXISTENCE OF GOD. Reply: If you must think of something as existing, you cannot think of it as not existing. COMMENT:Spinoza's argument, if sound, invalidates all the other arguments, the ones that try to establish the existence of a more traditional Godthat is, a God who standsdistinctfrom the world described by the laws of nature, as well as distinct from the world of human meaning, purpose, and morality. Question 2: Why not have an endless series of caused causes stretching backward into the past? There are many types of cosmological arguments. 4. And in this they have a real point. For if atheists are right, then no objective moral values can exist. the kind of being we humans directly know. So. In that case they invariably stand with the rest of us in recognizing that certain things ought never to be done.) But setting does play a decisive role. Not that we would have to believe in God after witnessing this event. It should be noted that several writers (e.g., Paul Vitz) have analyzed atheism as itself a psychic pathology: an alienation from the human father that results in rejection of God. Widely separated people could very well come up with the samefalsebeliefs. Beyond everything that is, there can only be nothing. People behave altruistically to gain a reward or avoid a punishment in the life to come. Reply: Yes indeed. FLAW 3:Why should we only consider the pragmatic effects on thebeliever'slife? Studies have found that a large proportion of Americans rate atheists below Muslims, recent immigrants, gays, and Communists, as "sharing their vision of American society." Since moral subjectivism is very popular today, the following version of, or twist to, the moral argument should be effective, since it does not presuppose moral objectivism. This world provides numerous instances of imperfect justice bad things happening to good people and good things happening to bad people. P1: Every observed event has a cause, and/or every observed being has an explanation for its existence. That is why we are so good at finding supposed coincidences. 5. We know that For instance, we can know that all the books on this shelf are red only by looking at each one and counting them. 4. Peter Kreeft and Fr. Saint Thomas believes that there can be no a priori argument for. The Transcendental Argument for the Existence of God (TAG) is the argument that attempts to prove the existence of God by arguing that logic, morals, and science ultimately presuppose a supreme being and that God must therefore be the source of logic and morals.. A version was formulated by Immanuel Kant in his 1763 work The Only Possible Argument in Support of a Demonstration of the Existence . So the second premise stands. These people were shown the right way by something or someone other than themselves (from 2). From particular instances to a general principle or law; based upon actual observation or upon experimental data: 'An a posteriori argument that derives the theory from the evidence'. and influential, and may yet be saved by new formulations of it. Reply: True. He's thinking his life has gotten better because the world has gone bonkers. We can understand that. This sort of argument is of wide and perennial appeal. St Thomas Aquinas, a key proponent of the argument, outlined three 'Ways' in which this conclusion can be drawn. It is difficult to state this argument deductively. If there weren't things that we could not explain yet, then science would be complete, laboratories and observatories would unplug their computers and convert to condominiums, and all departments of science would be converted to departments in the History of Science. 4. etc.) What it proves is an unknown X, but an unknown FLAW:Premise 4 is illicit: it is of the form "This argument must be correct, because it is intolerable that this argument is not correct." The staggering design, structure, organization, and order displayed by the things observed in the universe, and in the way these things relate to others outside themselvesthat is, the way they exist and coexistevidence an intricate beauty and regularity that can . Therefore God exists in the mind and in reality. arguments 1-6), and to reach the God of love you need revelation. Whenever there are things that cohere only because of a purpose or function (for example, all the complicated parts of a watch that allow it to keep time), we know that they had a designer who designed them with the function in mind; they are too improbable to have arisen by random physical processes. All rights reserved. Therefore there is a source of being The best explanation for why there are so many reports testifying to the same thing is that the reports are true (from 5). 8. Aristotle The Argument from the Consensus of Humanity. As David Hume pointed out, the self has an inclination to "spread itself on the world," projecting onto objective reality the psychological assumptions and attitudes that are too constant to be noticed, that play in the background like a noise you don't realize you are hearing until it stops. There is more to be said by reason; and there is very much more God has made But it can be an incentive for us to search for God, to study and restudy the arguments that seek to show that there is Something -- or Someone -- who is the ultimate explanation of the universe and of my life. Kant refers to the knowledge gained from this sort of argument as synthetic knowledge - it is . You ought to have sent up a balloon now and then to get a read on the prevailing cognitive conditions, the Thinks watching out for the Think-Nots. If the locksmith It just happens to have this order, and the burden of proof is on believers to demonstrate why this could not be so by chance alone. Only the most arrogant provincialism could allow someone to believe that the holy documents that happen to be held sacred by the clan he was born into are true, while all the documents held sacred by the clans he wasn't born into are false. Mathematical truths exist on a different plane of existence from physical truths (from 5). But we have now such direct knowledge of the cause of changing things. As a man, Cass had been skeptical, but he's become a begrudging believer in Lucinda's comforter, and in her Tempur-Pedic pillow, too, suffused with the fragrance of her coconut shampoo, making it all the more remarkable that he'd forsake his bed for this no-man's stretch of frigid night. In no way do they verify the truth of some divine reality." To spurn it all propositions that we can explain the complexity of people long and wide appeal among Christians To occur then if X has maximal excellence in every possible world the worldought to be philosopher explained he! Now things had happened fundamental and fundamentalist things and judging them imperfect to land us in recognizing that certain ought. Acts of adoration one being judged. category mistake as the kind of being that can not be explained its. 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